How Beneficial an Online Education Can Be for You

An online education is a wonderful opportunity. You have the flexibility of taking a course on your own time. The flexibility of an online education allows you to be able to attend classes no matter your work schedule, or home schedule. Anywhere you have access to the Internet you can take classes. With recent computer mobility in the form of netbooks and the iPad, the opportunity to receive an education is endless.Learning online enables you to become Internet and computer savvy, two skills that are necessity in the ever-changing world of technology. You have access to course material round the clock. In a virtual classroom setting, you are able to go over lectures, lessons and other dicussions multiple times. You can learn at your own pace and do not have to worry about missing a class because of illness or other personal reasons.Participating in an online lesson discussion is not as daunting as in a regular classroom setting. Students remain pretty much anonymous are not judged by age, race or gender. Many people feel intimidated to participate in a regular classroom for fear of being judged or not having time to catch up to what is being taught. On the Internet, students have a chance to give thought to a question before answering and submitting their comments. The virtual classroom makes it easier for students to approach their instructor.They feel it is easier to speak with their instructor through online chats and email; this form of communication boosts student and instructor interaction. Everybody wins in this type of environment. Students that need flexibility because they have to work or have to care for children or other members of their family, the opportunity to earn a degree virtually is invaluable. With all the benefits of an online education, it is no wonder there is an ever-increasing number of students are turning towards an education online.

Conservative dominance in the years 1951 to 1964 Essay

The main reason for conservative dominance in the years 1951 to 1964 was labour disunity?† Access the validity of this view I agree with this statement as the labour party leaders were ageing. The labour leaders were from the pre-war era therefore it meant that they were not in touch with the population. This led to labour disunity throughout the years as it caused Attlee to retire, he found that he couldn’t understand what the young wanted. For the public they left their trust with the labour party and put it in the conservatives as they felt that labour had failed to create the consumer revolution that everyone had hoped for. By 1951 the public were also fed up with the rationing that they still had to endure even though the war had ended 6 years ago therefore this helped the conservative dominance in those years. Another reason as to why labour disunity was to blame for labour dominance was the growing split in the party caused by the Bevanites and Gaitskillites. The split in the party was due to Gaitskell introducing prescription and dentistry charges. Bevan supported the left wing of the party whereas Gaitskell supported the right wing of the party and followed Attlee in becoming the next leader of labour government. The split led to disunity as Gaitskell didn’t have the full support of the party; his ideas were always going to be argued against. Another reason why the split caused disunity in the labour party was to do with the trade unions. The trade unions were supporting the left wing of the party; this was a problem particularly during the Scarborough conference in 1960. Frank Cousins was the leader of the one of the most powerful unions, TGWU (transport and general workers) and was an extreme left wing. He led fierce opposition to Gaitskell over Britain’s nuclear weapons. Gaitskell wanted Britain to have nuclear weapons because of the looming threat of Russia, during the cold war; they could wipe out countries at any time. At the party conference in Scarborough Frank Cousins opposed Gaitskell’s leadership over the labour party and in particular nuclear weapons. He challenged Gaitskell over his decision not to refect unilateral disarmament. This caused disunity in the party because it showed to the public how weak the labour party was if a trade union leader, who had no power within the party was able to dictate what they did. It showed to them that someone who was a small minority was able to gather a lot of power. It was humiliation for Gaitskell because it showed he wasn’t able to control what was happening to the party. Alsoà ‚  disunity in the party was due to the fact that the left wing of the party was closely associated with CND (campaign for nuclear disarmament). The left wing side of the labour party were in favour of nuclear disarmament and being connected with nuclear disarmament scared many labour supporters. Many people were not in favour of nuclear disarmament as it was at the height of the cold war and they were scared of a nuclear war happening; this link between the CND and the labour party could have led to many voters turning away from the labour party in the 1959 election. Another reason which could have turned people away from voting for the labour party in the 1959 election was the association of CND being anti-government. Their ‘unilateralism’ became a powerful magnet for anti-government protest in some ways it almost was seen as a substitute for opposition in government. With many labour left-wingers associated with one of the most powerful pressure groups in Britain it made people question the ideas that the labour government had and their ability to run the country. The final reason for a split in labour disunity was clause four. Clause four was the commitment to nationalisation of everything which was a step towards socialism and communism. Gaitskell put forward the idea to abolish this clause and labours commitment to nationalisation to nationalisation. He was impressed with the way Germany had dumped their commitments to Marxist ideas in their party conference in 1959. Many people including the left wing of labour opposed this ide a and Gaitskell had to back down from his idea. With events happening in the world connected with socialism and communism, the abolishment of clause four was linked to the ideas of radical socialism which scared people as it was too close to communism for their liking. However it wasn’t just the labour disunity that caused the conservative party to remain dominant. The conservatives had strengths of their own that they used to the best of their ability. When conservatives came into power in 1951 it marked the end of the austerity era and the start of the post war boom. From 1952 most economic indicators pointed upwards with the boom in car ownership, home ownership increased, helped by the easy access to cheap mortgages and food rationing ended completely in 1954. Harold Macmillan who was then the housing minister fulfilled the election pledge of getting new homes constructed above 300,000 per year. The age of affluence helped keep the conservatives dominant in politics as it meant the public saw that party  as the ones who could make a change. Also the conservatives keeping their promises meant the public would respect them. In the run up to the 1955 election Butler was able to boost conservative election prospects with a ‘give-away’ budget. This meant for people in the middle classes would be provided with  £134 million in tax cuts. For these middle classes it meant an overwhelming support in favour of the conservatives because of the classes that might not have been able to afford the consumer goods were given a chance to. For the conservatives in the 1955 general election the public mood was what was described as a ‘feel good’ factor. They wanted the continuation of the consumer goods and therefore they would continue to vote for the conservatives as they saw them as the party who would be able to offer them it. Another reason for conservative dominance was that the national press was overwhelmingly in favour with the conservatives. During the 1955 election this helped win support and it also helped during Macmillan’s time as prime minister. Macmillan seemed to have the media in the palm of his hand using the new political opportunities that were provided by the television. With the conservative party gaining wide spread coverage throughout the country and labour not, it meant people knew more about the conservative party. With the national press focusing on the conservatives it gave them enough attention to win the elections crushing labour in every defeat. An important reason for the conservative dominance was the personalities that led the party. Winston Churchill gained his reputation for leading Britain to victory during the war. However during his post war leadership he was very much absent and Anthony Eden the acting prime minister led the conservatives. Eden was the first prime minister that the public felt they could understand what they wanted. Anthony Eden was said to have ‘represented contemporary manhood.’ This led the public to believe that for the first time after the war they would receive the benefits that they wanted. Eden has also many progressive ideas in domestic affairs however in the end this was his downfall. The Suez crisis split the conservative party and for the first time it looked like they would be weakened and labour would take power however it didn’t. Eden was resigned in 1957 and Harold Macmillan who led the campaign to abort the Suez crisis emerged as prime minister. He restored the party unity and in the 1959 led the conservatives to another win in the election. Macmillan from 1957 showed  his aura of confidence and political mastery. This showed to the public that the politicians and leaders in the party were strong willed and would do anything in their power to protect their country. This gave the conservatives the respect that they needed to go on and win the elections. Overall I think that although the labour party were weak, and this weakness led to the conservatives dominating politics and government; conservative dominance was due to the power that the leaders had. The people saw that this party was able to give them everything they wanted with the age of affluence. Also conservatives made sure that labour supporters would change sides as they gave respect to the labour’s post war consensus. With keeping with the post war consensus it showed to the people they were leaders who knew what they party wanted and not the ageing leader s in the labour party.

Memory Management Requirements

When talking about memory management, it is important to first understand what it is. When operating in a uniprogramming system, the main memory, commonly referred to as random access memory (RAM), is divided into two different parts. The first part is assigned to the operating system (OS), while the second part is assigned to the program currently being executed. When operating in a multiprogramming system, the OS portion must further be subdivided to accommodate multiple processes being executed simultaneously. This subdivision is done dynamically be the OS and that is what is referred to as memory management. Memory management is intended to fulfill a set list of requirements. These requirements are: relocation, protection, sharing, logical organization, and physical organization. This paper will cover each requirement individually. Relocation When a program executes, it is not always the only process accessing the main memory. There are generally many different processes that need access. And so, these processes get swapped around to keep active processes in the main memory in order to maximize the processor usage. When a process gets swapped out for another process, and will need to return, it is not realistic to expect that it will return to its original location in the main memory. This is where relocation plays a vital role. As processes get swapped out, and then back in, relocation moves them around to ensure that there is enough room for everyone to play. Protection Protection refers to maintaining the integrity of a process. A process cannot access a function of another process without specific permission before hand. As swapping and relocation occur, the likelihood of corrupting a process with another one increases. Protection refers to the protocols that keep that from happening. Sharing Sometimes multiple processes may need to access the same portion of main memory. In instances where processes are executing the same program, it is advantageous to allow them to access the same copy of the program, rather than them each having their own. Sharing has a delicate balance that it shares with protection. That is why control over sharing capabilities is very important. Local Organization Both main memory and secondary memory are organized as linear. This creates a conflict, because most programs are organized into modules. Local organization helps the OS and computer effectively deal with programs and data that are organized into modules. This provides a number of benefits. Modules can then be written and compiled independently, protection can be provided in the form of read/execute only modules, and it allows for easy sharing among modules. Physical Organization Physical organization is the core concept in memory management. To understand physical organization, you must first understand the two layers of memory in a system. Main memory refers to memory that is intended for quick processing, and is volatile, meaning that is loses all data when power is not applied. The second of these layers is referred to as secondary memory, which is slower, but is intended for long term storage. Because the programmer of a user program cannot possible know how much memory is available at the time of execution, and that there may be insufficient memory, the responsibility of managing physical organization belongs to the system. Memory Management Requirements When talking about memory management, it is important to first understand what it is. When operating in a uniprogramming system, the main memory, commonly referred to as random access memory (RAM), is divided into two different parts. The first part is assigned to the operating system (OS), while the second part is assigned to the program currently being executed. When operating in a multiprogramming system, the OS portion must further be subdivided to accommodate multiple processes being executed simultaneously. This subdivision is done dynamically be the OS and that is what is referred to as memory management. Memory management is intended to fulfill a set list of requirements. These requirements are: relocation, protection, sharing, logical organization, and physical organization. This paper will cover each requirement individually. Relocation When a program executes, it is not always the only process accessing the main memory. There are generally many different processes that need access. And so, these processes get swapped around to keep active processes in the main memory in order to maximize the processor usage. When a process gets swapped out for another process, and will need to return, it is not realistic to expect that it will return to its original location in the main memory. This is where relocation plays a vital role. As processes get swapped out, and then back in, relocation moves them around to ensure that there is enough room for everyone to play. Protection Protection refers to maintaining the integrity of a process. A process cannot access a function of another process without specific permission before hand. As swapping and relocation occur, the likelihood of corrupting a process with another one increases. Protection refers to the protocols that keep that from happening. Sharing Sometimes multiple processes may need to access the same portion of main memory. In instances where processes are executing the same program, it is advantageous to allow them to access the same copy of the program, rather than them each having their own. Sharing has a delicate balance that it shares with protection. That is why control over sharing capabilities is very important. Local Organization Both main memory and secondary memory are organized as linear. This creates a conflict, because most programs are organized into modules. Local organization helps the OS and computer effectively deal with programs and data that are organized into modules. This provides a number of benefits. Modules can then be written and compiled independently, protection can be provided in the form of read/execute only modules, and it allows for easy sharing among modules. Physical Organization Physical organization is the core concept in memory management. To understand physical organization, you must first understand the two layers of memory in a system. Main memory refers to memory that is intended for quick processing, and is volatile, meaning that is loses all data when power is not applied. The second of these layers is referred to as secondary memory, which is slower, but is intended for long term storage. Because the programmer of a user program cannot possible know how much memory is available at the time of execution, and that there may be insufficient memory, the responsibility of managing physical organization belongs to the system.

Elasticity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Elasticity - Essay Example The essay explains the three elements of elasticity and their respective implication on the organisations. By elaborating on the different needs of elasticity the essays proposes to identify the implications of the concepts on the organisations. Furthermore, with the use of examples, the paper intends to illustrate the different concepts that are related with the practical implications of the same on the organisational backdrop. The ‘price elasticity of demand’ is defined as â€Å"is the ratio of the percentage change in the quantity demanded of a commodity to a percentage change in price† (Jain, & Ohri, 2010). Price is one of the most important factors that determine the amount of goods that is likely to be demanded by the consumers. The change in price of a product has a direct impact on the overall demand of a consumer. This measure of elasticity helps in identifying the sensitivity of consumers based on their individual needs of demanding a particular product as per the change in price. The price elastic goods are often noted to be having a huge shift in the quantity demanded based on a slight shift in the price of the product. It is noted that determination of price of a commodity in the economy is quite significant (Hirschey, 2008). Price elasticity is the most common type of elasticity of demand and is measured in terms of the reaction that a product has towards change in price. T he following equation helps in determining the measure of price elasticity of demand. The above equation illustrate that the price elasticity of demand helps in measuring the sensitivity of a product towards percentage change in quantity demanded based on price. The same could be justified using graphical representation. The graph depicts that at A the price of the commodity is denoted by P whereas the demand of the commodity is denoted as Q. Notably, with the fall in the price of commodity from P to P1 the quantity of the commodity

Ableism Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Ableism - Assignment Example Hayman also agrees with Christensen that societal beliefs usually change an individual’s mastery of concepts. For instance, society usually assigns minor roles, if not any, to disable-bodied persons as compared to able-bodied people. Able-bodied people are assigned significant roles in the society including other areas such as a career and sports. For example, Disabled individuals were not allowed to take part in a number of activities and events. For example, the capability and skills of disabled individuals, in sports, has never been fully exploited. In the current Paralympics games, the disabled people are exhibiting a number of potential skills and capabilities. With the introduction of new technologies, these people are capable of participating in games like marathon, steeplechase, basketball, and swimming. It is also notable that these athletes’ performances almost equalize that of able-bodied athletes. This is an indication that ableism is just a traditional notion that despises the competencies and capabilities of disable-bodied people. Therefore, a change is required to ensure that roles and duties are equally distributed depending on an individual’s capabilities and skills. This should also not be done on the basis of an individual’s physical

Social responsibility as an international student Essay

Social responsibility as an international student - Essay Example To establish a standard mode of behavior, I should strive to get acquainted with the foreign culture and way of life. The first step involves the inner evaluation of my individual values that affect the day-to-day decision-making processes. These values guide me to gain more knowledge about my personal standards, my universal principles, and those of the community as well. In addition to that, ethics require me to evaluate the choices that I make, by establishing the possible impact of these choices to individuals or surrounding. These choices should encompass both the long and short-term consequences. It is however important for me to desist from judging others. It is extremely unethical to cast aspersions based on personal attitude and cultural belief. Ethics therefore requires me to discern what is right from that, which is wrong. Similarly, social responsibility begins with inner commitment to perform what is proper, right and good for the individual and the society. On the other hand, social responsibility is a determinant of how the community views an individual. The basic social responsibility of any international student is to portray a caring attitude not only towards oneself, but also towards the society. In showing care, I should participate in charitable activities such as visiting the sick in hospitals as well as helping to sustain the lives of the destitute. In the institutional framework, I can participate in environmental preservation exercises that aim at improving the lifestyles of other students in the institution. Through a caring attitude, I begin to master the ethical issues that relate to the institutional frameworks. Social responsibility requires adequate sense of competence and control. A major challenge that international students encounter is the lack of minority control in the institution. Competence is an indicator of quality leadership and ethical concern about the need for equality. It must be

What role does sexual and gender based violence (SGBV) play in wars, Essay

What role does sexual and gender based violence (SGBV) play in wars, and how can peace processes best respond to it - Essay Example Therefore, it is sexual contacts without individuals consent to torture that involves the genitalia (ICRC, 2013). A couple of elements make some people more vulnerable to sexual violence than others. Gender, age and situation posed upon the victims, are some of these factors. Women have been found more vulnerable than men possibly due to their physicality and elements like biased cultures that exploit their vulnerability. Men and boys have been found vulnerable to the events of detention and seclusion. Sexual and gender-based violence comes with severe implications during and post the particular acts. Victims are physically harmed, are traumatized psychologically, and sustain sexually transmitted infections, and such scenarios result in death in some incidences. The survivors deal with stigmatization in the society and may experience rejection. Sexual and gender-based violence have been found to play a key role during wars in many parts of the society. There are established peace pro cesses to address it. The world has witnessed combatants commit these injustices to vulnerable victims during armed conflict. Such incidences have been documented in the world featuring those in Syria, Rwanda, DRC Congo, Cambodia, Haiti, Bangladesh and many other places. Therefore, we can identify the role of these acts in wars and understand how well to address them. Media houses have reported massive rape crisis in Syria, an element that has illuminated the role of sexual violence during armed conflicts. The government forces in Syria have been documented as using rape as one of their military tactics to handle those communities that are affiliated with the rebels (Kerry Crawford, 2014). The act would instill fear in such communities and thus chose to withdraw their loyalty towards the rebel. The government is taking advantage of their vulnerability to suit its needs and agenda. The deeds are degrading to

Philosophers v. Poets in Plato's The Republic Essay

Philosophers v. Poets in Plato's The Republic - Essay Example In contrast to philosophy, poetry does not imply self-knowledge and self-control. If the disavowal of knowledge is in fact the disavowal of wisdom or expertise, we can see how that disavowal is compatible with the particular claims to knowledge which Socrates makes. Socrates identified wisdom first with self-control and then with justice and the rest of virtue. On questioning poets about their expertise, "'Until philosophers are kings, and political greatness and wisdom meet in one, and those commoner natures who pursue either to the exclusion of the other are compelled to stand aside, cities will never have rest from their evils" (Plato 123). Plato found that poets in fact lacked the wisdom which they claimed, and were thus less wise than Socrates, who was at least aware of his own ignorance. Socrates had a divine mission to show others that their own claims to substantive wisdom were unfounded. "Behold, he said, the wisdom of Socrates; he refuses to teach himself, and goes about le arning of others, to whom he never even says Thank you" (Plato 12). Plato underlines that this enterprise of examining others which was the basis of his unpopularity and consequent misrepresentation, he later in the speech describes as the greatest benefit that has ever been conferred on the city, and his obligation to continue it in obedience to the god as so stringent that he would not be prepared to abandon it even if he could save his life by doing so. Socrates' call for banishing poets from the city, also makes it clear that the vast system of regulation applies to adults as well as children. The only ostensible exception in conflict between poets and philosophers is an examination of the claim of a professional reciter of poetry to possess wisdom. "For it is necessary that the good poet, if he is going to make fair poems about the things his poetry concerns, be in possession of knowledge when he makes his poems" (Plato 211). Plato underlines that poets seem to see the fact that we can say or write only one sentence at a time as something positive. Thus approach, for example, allows them to use the element of surprise to advantage (Taylor 23). Philosophers sometimes see this same fact as an inescapable burden (Taylor 24). They would just as soon get everything out all at once, if only they could, and they often work hard to eliminate surprise. Certainly, the style of most philosophical writing is very different from that of plays. It is not unusual for philosophers to give a forecast of what they are going to do, do it, and then remind us of what they have done. "When ev en the best of us hear Homer or any other of the tragic poets imitating one of the heroes in mourning and making quite an extended speech with lamentation, we give ourselves over to following the imitation" (Plato 231). The language in which philosophy is expressed has a life of its own; words are inevitably loaded with subtle meanings that sometimes say more and sometimes less than those who use them self-consciously intend. Thus, good philosophers should be ready for some surprises when others interpret what they have written (Taylor 27). Some philosophers recognize that language sometimes uses us as much as we use it, but then

Disseminating-Evidence Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Disseminating-Evidence Project - Essay Example Conversely, induced hypothermia can also occur through non-invasive means, typically involving the use of a chilled water blanket, leg wraps or torso vests placed in direct contact with the skin of the patient. Previously conducted studies indicate that patients with the potential risk for ischemic brain injuries have immense chances positive outcomes when treated with an induced hypothermia protocol (Binks et al. 2010). This paper will examine the medical protocol of induced hypothermia, discussing its inherent advantages on neurological outcomes. The paper will provide an account of induced hypothermia, describing the different protocols and effects of hypothermia on the human brain. The paper will culminate with a comprehensive dissemination plan that entails a roundtable discussion. Since its inception, induced hypothermia protocols have proved quite effective. Background Medical practitioners have applied hypothermia therapeutically since ancient times. The history of induced hy pothermia dates as far back as the Hippocrates era although the first published medical article on induced hypothermia was in 1945. The world’s initial modern doctor i.e. Greek physician Hippocrates endorsed the packing of injured soldiers using ice and snow. Napoleonic surgeon Dominique Jean Larrey observed that officers kept near fire had lower survival chances than officers kept in cold environments. The study first published in 1945 focused on the impacts of hypothermia on patients affected by head injuries. In the mid 20th century, hypothermia obtained its initial medical application used in intracerbal aneurysm surgery with a view to establish a bloodless field. Notably, most of the initial research into induced hypothermia concentrated on the application of deep hypothermia i.e. applications of body temperatures between 20-25 Â °C. This extreme drop in body temperature produces an array of effects that made the application of deep hypothermia quite impractical. The 19 50s also saw intense investigation of mild forms of induced hypothermia, i.e. 32-34 Â °C. During this period, Dr. Rosomoff exemplified in dogs the advantages of mild hypothermia pursuant to a traumatic brain injury or ischemia. Researchers conducted further animal studies in the 1980s showing the capacity of mild hypothermia to function as a general neuroprotectant, especially after obstruction of blood flow to the brain (Sessler, 2005). In 1999, after a skiing accident Anna Bagenholm’s heart stopped beating for at least three hours during which her body temperature was 13.7 Â °C prior to resuscitation. In addition to animal studies, as well as Anna Bagenholm’s misfortune, there have been at least two landmark studies published in 2002 in the New England Journal of Medicine. Both studies demonstrated the benefits of applying mild hypothermia following a cardiac arrest. Subsequently, in 2003, the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILOR) and the American Heart Association (AHA) endorsed the application of mild hypothermia after cardiac arrest. Presently, a growing number of hospitals worldwide incorporate the recommendations of AHA/ILCOR and embrace hypothermic protocols in their standard care packages for patients who suffer cardiac arrest. Certain researchers further contend that induced hypothermia is a better neuroprotectant after obstruction

The Wall Fragment from the Tomb of Thenti Essay

The Wall Fragment from the Tomb of Thenti - Essay Example Egyptian pyramids were planned to preserve the body of Pharaoh and guard his possessions after death, so as to simplify his passage into life after death. All forms of architecture in ancient Egypt were controlled by a highly conventional set of traditional agreements and rules, which preferred form and order over creative expression.Egyptian architecture/tombs represent the power, belief, and culture of a kingdom during that era, and that is why it is important worldwide. As soon as the Greeks reigned Egypt inaugurates with a variety of remarkable works established in the 3000 years before the coming of Alexander the Great. They were centered on belief in a tactile and real afterlife that reflected life on earth, glassmakers, scribes, architects, goldsmiths, painters, and sculptor’s formed attractive obituary goods to work for the poor and rich in eternity. Spiritual beliefs that had altered slightly over three millenniums meant artwork was surprisingly reliable and stood by time-honored ethnicities that carried forward the distinct visual culture of historical generations. Also, it carried forward the iconic Egyptian treaty of signifying the human body. Wall Fragment from the Tomb of Thenti is simply an illustration that concurrently shows the side and front views of the body, the shoulders and eyes are front while the mouth, nose, and head are displayed in profile. A lot has been inscribed, spoken, discussed, and debated about the affluent culture of Egypt. However, the Egyptian culture has persisted as enigmatic and intriguing as it was many years ago, assuring an ever-increasing arrival of visitors and tourists to the country. Maybe it has to do with the scientific advancement, treasures, richness, the magical and the huge architecture, whatsoever the motivation, the Egyptian culture and Egypt as a country grasps the attention of the globe at large.

Startups. Young Entrepreneurs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Startups. Young Entrepreneurs - Essay Example And of course there are the "children" that refuse to be seen as incapable members of the society and by chance or knowledge they make it work in the very competitive business market, hit the screen and make a fortune even from their adolescence. This is the case of two young entrepreneurs that share their secret and how they cracked the market. The first case is the one of Dominic McVey. He started his business around the age of 13, when boys have dreams of driving anything that moves. He is now 19 and his business still goes one and flourishes. There could be said that his story is one of sheer luck, but the fact is that he took advantage of a simple fact that happened in his life. By mistake, when he was looking for a Visa credit card, he introduced the word "Viza", which is a brand of scooters. As a young boy he wanted one for himself, but knew that neither he, nor his parents had the money to buy one. He dared to write them an e-mail through which he requested a free one, with the promise that he could sell much more in his town. The answer from the company was that if he bought five, he would get one for free. McVey was not a complete stranger in the field of business and he started gathering the money from different sources, like organizing parties and selling various things on the internet. When he finally got the si x scooters, a new business opportunity opened for him. He sold the five scooters to friends and family and within a week he sold other ten ones. From there the sky was the limit. Some people said that Dominic's business was sheer luck, but when we hear the version of his promotion there are some clear strategies that he followed in order to be successful on a large scale. One of the strong points of Dominic was his great persuasive manner of presenting the product. He admits that "I was very, very competitive. I guess I was very mouthy about other products out there, but all the others out there were crap and expensive." He proved to have a good knowledge of the product and at first he had a great direct marketing strategy, which involved a personal touch and contact with the customers. This touch brought him in the center of attention both for the press and the people in general. The fact that he was liked by the press proved to be essential in his business, as he got the kind of promotion and advertising he never thought to achieve before. Even if as a child he got bored of his scooter, he did not stop selling them. He thought of a way of promoting his pro duct through flyers and was not discouraged when he was chased around by security or the traffic safety people started to be unhappy with so many scooters. His customers had different backgrounds, from the businessmen that bought them as toys, to the persons that used them to commute to their work place. One of the problems that Dominic faced was obviously his age. He managed to overcome this by working mostly on the internet and on the phone. He had good presentations made by his friends and practically this was all he needed. The big companies tended to see him as the little brother and found it a pleasure to share information with his. Anyhow the great advantage of the business was that all the money was his and the only things that were needed to be paid were the phone and internet bills. For Dominic technology filled the gap. The internet marketing strategy worked out. Anyhow, McVey is for now not taking into

Comparative Between Confucius and Daoism Essay Example for Free

Comparative Between Confucius and Daoism Essay Conflict Resolution Negotiation (Volume 2011 Issue 4)111 Please cite as Low K. C. P. (2011) ‘Confucianism Versus Taoism’, Conflict Resolution Negotiation Journal, Volume 2011, Issue 4, p. 111 127 Confucianism Versus Taoism Prof. Dr. Patrick Low Kim Cheng Ph. D. Chartered Marketer, Certified MBTI Administrator, Certified Behavioral Consultant/ Universiti Brunei Darussalam; Associate, University of South Australia About the Author Prof. Dr. Patrick Low Kim Cheng, Ph. D. (South Australia), Chartered Marketer, Certified MBTI Administrator, Certified Behavioral Consultant (IML, USA), brings with him more than 20 years of combined experience from sectors as diverse as the electronics, civil service, academia, banking, human resource development and consulting. His MNC and local corporate clients from ASEAN, Sri Lanka, Hong Kong, Bangladesh and Kazakhstan are in manufacturing, electronics, IT, retail, engineering services, hospitals, hotels, banks financial institutions as well as the public sector. The once Visiting Professor, Graduate School of Business, Universiti of Malaya (Jan to Feb 2007), Prof. Dr. Low was the Deputy Dean, Postgraduate Studies Research, teaching in Universiti Brunei Darussalam (2009). He teaches the graduate students/ MBA in Organisational Behavior, Managing Negotiations, Leadership and Change Management, and the undergraduates in Leadership Basics, Challenging Leadership, Business and Society, Issues in Organizational Leadership, Organization Analysis Design; and Organization Development Change. The former Associate Dean, Director of Career Services and Chair of the Management and Marketing Department of a University in Kazakhstan (2004 to 2006) focuses on human resource management and behavioral skills training covering areas like negotiation/ influencing, leadership and behavioral modification. An academician-practitioner, a prolific author (author of twelve books including bestsellers (Strategic Customer Management, 2006, 2002, 2000 – one of Borders’ top ten in 2001/2, Sales Success, 2006, 2003; Team Success, 2003 and The Power of Relationships, 2001). His most recent books include Successfully Negotiating In Asia (Springer, 2010) and Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn. com/abstract=1982271 Conflict Resolution Negotiation (Volume 2011 Issue 4)112 Corporate Culture and Values – Perceptions of Corporate Leaders of Cooperatives in Singapore (VDM-Verlag, 2009). A business coach, Prof. Dr. Low is the founder of BusinesscrAFTâ„ ¢ Consultancy and he previously served as an Examiner for University of South Australia’s DBA and Ph. D. candidates (2003 to October 2006); presently, he has been appointed as the supervisor for its DBA candidates. Besides his experience in academia, training and consulting, Prof. Dr. Patrick Low has held positions in regional human resource development (HRD). He has been the Senior Training Manager (Asia Pacific Region) in Standard Chartered Bank where he was responsible for regional management training and development, marketing of HRD services and management succession. He can be contacted at [emailprotected] com Confucianism Versus Taoism Abstract: In this paper, the practitioner-academician makes comparisons and contrasts between the two great philosophical bodies (or oldest religious traditions) of China, that is, Confucianism and Taoism. Among other things, the key commonalities of Confucianism and Taoism include being in pursuit of the Tao, close to nature and harmony, and taking the right actions are critical than just the belief(s). The key differences are also examined here, and these, among other things, include human living and spirituality, and filial piety and nature as well as rites and beyond rites. 1 Introduction Confucianism and Taoism do not have a specific founder or date of founding, even though one of them (Confucianism) appears to be named after an individual, K’ung Fu Tzu or Confucius in English. Confucius was born in 551 BC in China in what is presently Shantung Province. He lived during the Zhou dynasty, known for its ethical laxity. For Taoism, its texts include the Tao de ching (The Way of Power) which is believed to have been written by Lao Tzu. The text describes the nature of life, the way to peace and how a ruler should lead his life. The Chuang Tzu contains additional teachings of Taoism. Franklin Publishing Company www. franklinpublishing. net Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn. com/abstract=1982271 Conflict Resolution Negotiation (Volume 2011 Issue 4)113 1. 1 Paper’s Aim And Objectives The aim and objectives of the paper are to make comparisons and examine the contrasts between the two great philosophical bodies (or oldest religious traditions) in China, that is, Confucianism and Taoism, and with that, it is hoped to logically get a better understanding of the two philosophical bodies. 2 2. 1 Commonalities Of Confucianism And Taoism In Pursuit of the Tao Both show that the non-religious state of existence is unsatisfying and non-harmonious. Instead, both Confucianism and Taoism stress on the pursuit of the Tao, and that the Tao is the ultimate. Similar to Shakespeare’s â€Å"have more than thou showest, speak less than thou knowest†, in Taoism, it is said that those who know do not speak and those who speak do not know. Tao, the first cause, can be roughly translated into English as â€Å"path†, or â€Å"the way†, referring to a power which envelops, surrounds and flows through all things, living and non-living. Tao is the Oneness of everything; â€Å"Tao is always without a name and that it is the origin of heaven and earth. Tao can also be said to be the â€Å"Absolute† that it can be said to be the movement and a stillness without a beginning, Yin and Yang (also known as Tai Chi) are things that can be said to be without a beginning† (Cleary 2003, cited in Low and Ang, 2010: 85; Wu, 1990: 1). 2. 2 Close to Nature And Harmony Both Confucianism and Taoism are close to nature, very much reflected in Chinese culture. Most Chinese gates or traditional Chinese gardens display a pair of lions, one male and one female. The female mother lion, usually with its young, represents Mother Nature. From Confucius – The Analects, Chapter VII verse 17, we learn that â€Å"The Master used a fishing line but not a cable; attached to a net, he used a corded arrow but not to shoot at roosting birds. † Both Taoism and Confucianism believe that the two opposing and complementary forces Franklin Publishing Company www. franklinpublishing. net Conflict Resolution Negotiation (Volume 2011 Issue 4)114 (chi) of yin and yang should be maintained in a harmonious condition no matter what level they are operating on, such as universe, nature, society, or an individual (Li, 1996). â€Å"Everything will be accomplished smoothly in a harmonious family,† Confucius encouraged that internal harmony should also be treasured as the highest value within a family, just as it is essential to the smooth functioning of a system at any other level. Both schools preach that humans live in harmony with nature, and such a way is compatible with humankind’s taking care of nature and the surrounding environment of the communities they live and work (Low and Ang, forthcoming; Low, forthcoming). In Lao Tzu’s mind, the people should be encouraged to embrace simplicity, diminishing self interest and curbing one’s desires (Tao Te Ching, Verse 49); in this way, one can then create a peaceful and harmonious environmental attitude towards people and nature, and there is overall happiness between and among all. Detaching ourselves and not getting caught with the great number of things in our mind, we also slow down, pay attention to our breathing, move slowly and deeply, and we reach new understandings about ourselves and the world around us. In Taoism, peace is  treasured (â€Å"The best way of conquering an enemy is to win him over by not antagonizing him†¦Ã¢â‚¬  – Tao Te Ching, verse 68; Wu, 1990: 101). War is no good and only results in sufferings of the people; rulers need to find and seek peace for his or her people. With harmony, trade, business and profits can be made, and the countries make progress – as the Chinese saying goes, â€Å"Harmony grows profits† (Hanyu Pinyin: he chi sen chai). It can thus be said that the Chinese prize harmony above all things. A large part of Chinese literature is based on the idea of harmony (Tao Te Ching – McDonald, 2009; Mitchell, 1995; Towler, 2002). For both Confucianism and Taoism, a sage is a person who is in total harmony with their world – the world around them as well as the world within them. 2. 3 Wanting to Be Happy And Being Positive Franklin Publishing Company www. franklinpublishing. net Conflict Resolution Negotiation (Volume 2011 Issue 4)115 One of the basic facts of life is that all of us want to be happy. Each of us does not wish to suffer; and yet, suffering is a part of life, just as happiness is. It can be taken that both Confucianism and Taoism, being positive, appear to urge people to pursue happiness. If we are negative, then we spend too much time searching for ways to avoid suffering; indeed so, we will also miss out much of the happiness that is possible in our lives. In Confucianism, with the Rectification of Names and roles fulfilled, a father does the father’s role, a mother the mother’s role, the son the son’s role and so on; then there will be harmonious relationships and happiness. If there were peace, harmony and happiness in the family and since a nation is essentially made of families, then the nation would also enjoy peace, harmony and happiness. Confucius also highlighted that having an independent, truly calm, steady, down-to-earth mind and heart that one can avoid being swayed by the rises and falls, gains and loses of life. Free from worries and fears (Confucius – The Analects, Chapter XII, verse 4), a person of high integrity and morality (a gentleperson, junzi) would be happy; (s)he would sleep well. In these ways, one can thus be more or less, contented or happy. In Taoism, as in Yin-Yang, it is taken that the seed of suffering is inherent in each moment of happiness. In this way we should remain centered during moments of great happiness. In life, if we build our happiness on simple things like love, friendship, good health, and spirit, we can build a sense of happiness that will endure the challenges and changes that life gives us (Towler, 2002a; http://ancienthistory. mrdonn. org/Taoism. html). Thus, in both Confucianism and Taoism call for people to live happily. 2. 4 Right Actions Are Critical Both generally see religious beliefs as having less importance than religious practices. In fact, both Confucianism and Taoism stress on orthopraxy (right actions) over orthodoxy (right beliefs). Franklin Publishing Company www. franklinpublishing. net Conflict Resolution Negotiation (Volume 2011 Issue 4)116 In The Analects, Book II verse 13, it is said that Tzu-kung asked about the gentleman. The Master said, ‘He puts his words into action before allowing his words to follow his action. ’† Low (2008: 33) speaks of the â€Å"message Confucius impresses on us is that: As leaders, we need to act and behave as gentlemen. † And what more, he has added that â€Å"when virtue is practised, one enjoys a clear conscience† (Low, 2008: 33). Confucianism also stresses on humanism, and more importantly on the value of love and compassion (Low, 2010). In a person’s personal conduct, (s)he is respectful. In his or her dealings with his or her staff, (s)he is considerate; in caring for the common people’s welfare, (s)he is generously kind; and in dealing with all, (s)he is just (Low, 2008). Like Confucianism, Taoism also stresses on compassion (a typical right action), underscoring the fact that â€Å"weapons of war augur evil. Even things seem to hate them†; besides, â€Å"to achieve more for others, enlarge your heart† (Low, 2009: 33). 2. 5 Open And Continuing Canons Each does not have a closed canon, each continues to be interpreted, written and included in their respective canons. However, unlike Taoism, familiarity with the Confucian canon was one of the main requirements of the civil service examinations in traditional China. 2. 6 No Fixed Religious Services But Anywhere At Anytime, It Can Be Practiced Interestingly too or in fact, very convenient, both have no fixed religious services and can be practiced anywhere, from shrines and temples to private studies and mountain peaks. Seen from this angle, there is much freedom and it is life and in living, praying and living in oneness (life itself is a prayer! ). The good thing is that they are without rituals or strict conformity of attending masses or prayer sessions in fixed days as evident in some of the other major religions. Franklin Publishing Company www. franklinpublishing. net Conflict Resolution Negotiation (Volume 2011 Issue 4)117 2. 7 Benevolence And Compassion Interestingly, Low (2008a: 67) has highlighted that one of the classic leadership sins or mistakes is that of â€Å"being callous to the needs of the others† or lacking in empathy or worse, compassion. For both Confucius and Lao Tzu, leaders need to be benevolent. Low (2008b) has highlighted that the Confucian business owner/leadership, with its high task and high relationship, is seen as caring and the leader builds the bond with the employees. In the Confucian sense, being benevolent or kind, a characteristic element of humanity, is an part of an individual’s talents. Like Confucianism, Taoism also considers a worthy person as a benevolent person, and in the former, a benevolent person enjoys longevity (ren cher shou). Leaders need to be compassionate and empathetic. Both Confucianism and Taoism preach and stress on compassion. Compassion is, in fact, one of Lao Tzu’s three treasures (Low, 2009; Wu, 1990). Such a belief and action is particularly vital. And it is, in fact, excellent when it comes to leading people since the compassionate leaders practice servant leadership, desiring overall little or nothing for themselves, but empathetically showing and acting with care and concern more for the people and their needs (Low, 2010, 2009; 2008). Figure 1: A List of Commonalities Of Confucianism And Taoism In Pursuit of the Tao Close to Nature And Harmony Wanting to Be Happy And Being Positive Right Actions Are Critical Open And Continuing Canons No Fixed Religious Services But Anywhere At Anytime, It Can Be Practiced Benevolence And Compassion Franklin Publishing Company www. franklinpublishing. net Conflict Resolution Negotiation (Volume 2011 Issue 4)118 3 3. 1 The Key Differences Human Living and Spirituality Confucianism, on one hand, stresses on attaining Tao in human living. The writings of Confucius deal primarily with individual morality and ethics. (also see Low, 2008c – Confucian ethics and business responsibility to the various stakeholders), and the proper exercise of political power by the rulers. Confucianism is not, properly speaking, a religion but it is more of a way of behaving so that one does the right things (http://ancienthistory. mrdonn. org/Confucius. html). Confucianism stresses on the Rectification of Names, and each needs to fulfill each person’s respective roles and responsibilities. For Confucius, â€Å"therefore, the superior man examines his heart that there may be nothing wrong there, and that he may have no cause for dissatisfaction with himself. † (Doctrine of the Mean, Chapter XXXIII. , Verse 2, cited in Confucius, 1915). A Confucian thus believes that an ordered society is what people should strive for. In that sense, it is more this-worldly, and is a way of life rather than a religion. Nonetheless, the wisdom of the Old Master can (still) help us to obtain spiritual happiness in the modern world, to get used to the daily routine of our lives, and to find the personal bearings that tell us where we are (Yu Dan, 2009: 11). Taoism, on the other hand, focuses on achieving the Tao, basically on the spiritual aspects of life; and it is other-worldly and can be considered as a religion. [Some have, however, argued that Taoism is not a religion. Taoism is a philosophy, a way of looking at life and a way of thinking about things. Taoists believe if one looks at life and think about things in the right way, one will be much happier -http://ancienthistory. mrdonn. org/Taoism. html. ] This author however feels that Taoism stresses on the spiritual aspects of life and it is mystical too – â€Å"Tao can be talked about, but not the Eternal Tao, Names can be named, but not the Eternal Name. As the origin of heaven-and-earth, it is nameless. As ‘the Mother’ of all things, it is nameable. † (Tao te ching, verse 1, Wu, 1990: 1). It is also said that one of the head-twisty things about the Tao de ching is that it never specifically defines The Way. The book itself is a series of verses, poems, Franklin Publishing Company www. franklinpublishing. net Conflict Resolution Negotiation (Volume 2011 Issue 4)119 and riddles, stressing on control but not dominance, fluidity but not ambivalence, and mystery but not confusion. Nonetheless, it is full of wise, helpful nuggets to assist human beings in living and attaining spiritual contentment; examples include â€Å"embrace simplicity, put others first. Desire little†, and â€Å"weapons are the bearers of bad news; all people should detest them† (Lao Tzu, Verses 19 and 31, Tao de ching; McDonald; 2009). To elaborate, one should live simply while being healthily aware and refusing greed and lust. After all, as in the Chinese proverb, one should not â€Å"add legs to the snake after one has finished drawing it†. And not to complicate things, simplicity indeed makes one’s life easier, more convenient and pleasant. And next, all of us should value or treasure peace and harmony. Confucius’ The Analects, depending heavily on analogy and metaphor, is, on the other hand, very clear and concrete on attaining the way in terms of human living, and for the overall good of humankind. For Confucius, there is to be good family living; and peace and harmony as well as the attainment of good community living. For Lao Tzu, there is to be oneness with nature and the Universe or Heaven. 3. 2 Practicality And Esotericism. Confucianism is very practical, suited for pragmatic human living. In The Analects, Book XI, verse 12: â€Å"Chi-lu asked how the spirits of the dead and the gods should be served. The Master said, ‘You are not able even to serve man. How can you serve the spirits? ’ ‘May I ask about death? ’ ‘You do not understand even life. How can you understand death? ’ For Confucianism, in business, corporate social responsibility (CSR) should always be there: what is taken from the community is returned through donations, charity and other assistances rendered to the poor and needy. In his study, Low (2008c) has indicated that the Confucian Golden Rule and Confucian ethics in the context of the stakeholder theory, showing how businesses can be ethical while being caring and compassionate for its stakeholders. Franklin Publishing Company www. franklinpublishing. net Conflict Resolution Negotiation (Volume 2011 Issue 4)120 In Taoism, the goal of each believer is to become one with the Tao, a force that flows through all life. The concept of a personified deity is foreign to them; perhaps there is the concept of an impersonal god. The practitioners do not pray because there is no god to hear the prayers or to act upon them; believers seek answers to life’s problems through inner meditation and outer observation. [In that sense, Taoism can be seen as esoteric, abstract or not easy to be understood. ] Taoists believe in the duality of the universe, symbolized by yin-yang, but oneness is to be attained through inner meditation, balance and harmony. Taoist practitioners believe in nourishing life and the spirit by energizing or getting chi (energy), meditating and being in oneness with the Tao. 3. 3. Groupings, Categorization and Non-Categorization/ Dualities And Oneness Because of Confucius’ Rectifications of Names (Fung, 1948), the role each person needs to play appears to have a lot of categorization (groupings); and love starts from loving one’s parents and family members first; and then extend out to love one’s neighbors and further extend to one’s community and society. In Taoism, there is this seeking or search for Oneness and no dualities or differentiation between animals and humans or humans and nature. Let me explain. First of all, humans need to widen their mind and horizons. Humans often live and experience reality conceptually. We do not see things afresh and anew every time we look at them; instead, we create categories and let things fall into them, which is an easy and more convenient way of dealing with the world. Apart from the smaller things, such as defining a flower as a rose, a vase as a Chinese Ming vase, an antique, or a person as a teacher, there are wider categories (groupings or types) under which everyone lives, including religions, beliefs, ideologies, and systems of government. Each category or type supplies us a level of psychological certainty and saves us  from the effort of constantly challenging our own beliefs. Take for example, humans often divide animals into ‘favorites’ or ‘pets’ and ‘domestic/ farm animals’ so that we can feel alright loving one and eating or consuming the other. Franklin Publishing Company www. franklinpublishing. net Conflict Resolution Negotiation (Volume 2011 Issue 4)121 Mindlessness, on one hand, is when there is no focus and occurs when humans are conditioned or at least not know that the categories to which they subscribe are categories and have accepted them as their own without really thinking, understanding and/or experiencing it. Breaking away from, reassessing old groupings and being able to see outside one’s (individual/ in-box) subjective context (seeing the wider, collective/ out-of-the-box/ objective context) is mindfulness. We should indeed be perceiving things in un-habitual ways, and thus we’ll grow. On the other hand, when we are mindful, we will not be stereotyping and boxing things up, we’ll be in line with nature as things are transient and they also change. When we are mindful, we are breaking away from our egos and categories and in fact get closer to nature or Tao, the Universe. Then again, one can also argue that both Confucianism and Taoism are, in a way, common in terms of the pursuits of the Tao (as said under the Commonalities of Confucianism and Taoism section), and the differences lies in their starting points, from subjectivity to universality for Confucianism and from mindlessness to mindfulness for Taoism. 3. 4 Filial Piety And Nature Confucianism urges the people to respect their parents and the old. They are to take care of their parents, maintaining good links with them while upholding the value of filial piety (xiao). In the Confucian language, filial piety (xiao) means serving one’s living parents, and thus, resulting in the five (5) vital relationships in the Confucian Teaching, that is, the relationships between: i. ii. iii. iv. v. the royalty/prince and subject. father and son. older and younger brother. husband and wife. friend and friend. Filial piety embraces those attitudes of respect for one’s seniors and a reciprocal attitude of love and affection on the seniors part to the junior. After the death of one’s parents, it involves religious obligations in ceremonial worship. Franklin Publishing Company www. franklinpublishing. net Conflict Resolution Negotiation (Volume 2011 Issue 4)122 Taoism, on the other hand, emphasizes ‘going with the flow’, maintaining good links and in oneness with the Nature, Heaven or the Universe. In Taoism, we learn from nature – a flower falls even though we love it, and weed grows even though we do not love it. We love the animals and creatures around us. And we do not interfere yet we are contented; after all, there is a season and reason for everything; and everything has its place; just let it be. By accepting things as they are, we become impartial or unaffected. It is good to follow the natural order (Low, 2010b). In following nature, we are in harmony with nature. There is no or little stress. We sit quietly†¦ do nothing. Spring comes and grass grows by itself. Besides, a known yet significant point to note is that nature does not hurry yet everything is achieved. 3. 5 Rites And Beyond Rites Or Rigidity Versus Flexibility Confucius introduced rites/terms of reference to ensure people comply with the system. This is somewhat rigid; however, on many occasions, he would allow people to modify, change and improve the rites accordingly. For example, on one occasion, Confucius highlighted that according to the traditional rites, ceremonial hats were made out of hemp; these days people make them out of silk, he approved of the common practice since this, after all, is more economical † (Confucius – The Analects, Chapter IX, verse 3). Lao Tzu was flexible in his teachings, and he did not introduce or follow any system such as the rites proposed by Confucius. He instead encouraged people to lead a simple life, following the natural ways of living and remain detached to the world like a newly born infant who has not yet learnt to smile. (Tao Te Ching, Verse 20). To analyze further, we can say that people in the world consists of different personalities, and some people are so used to or prefer a structure, a sort of checklist or a religious (structured) approach to doing things (In Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: MBTI terms: Thinking; Judging Franklin Publishing Company www. franklinpublishing. net Conflict Resolution Negotiation (Volume 2011 Issue 4)123 Types) while others may prefer a less structured approach to doing things (In Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: MBTI terms: Feeling; Intuitive/ Perceiving Types). They like to move, adjusting along the way, rather than an immediate structured, ordered way, all the way through till the end or completion. In Confucianism, rites give structure, stability and continuity. Rites are necessary since they provide the basis of practices as well as more importantly, standards. Confucius also stressed the need for rituals and music. For Confucius, ‘sacrifice as if present’ is taken to mean ‘sacrifice to the gods as if the gods were present. ’ The Master, however, said, ‘Unless I take part in a sacrifice, it is as if I did not sacrifice. ’ (Confucius –The Analects, Chapter III verse 12). Taoism goes beyond rites, ‘going with the flow’; and like the quality of water, flexibility is also applied. Chairman Mao Zedong once quoted Lao Tzu, â€Å"Fortune lies in misfortune and vice versa. † In other words, the Taoist practitioner is often mindful of the fact that in every misfortune lies the seed of fortune, and in every fortune lies the seed of misfortune; and given a situation, (s)he is to flexibly apply the ‘right’ approach. 3. 6 Learning And Unlearning. In Confucianism, learning and education is indeed critical (Low, 2010; 2010a). Confucius stressed very much on learning and he himself set an example of continuous learning throughout his life. â€Å"The Master said, ‘At fifteen, I set my heart on learning; at thirty I took my stand; at forty I came to be free from doubts; at fifty I understood the Decree of Heaven; at sixty my ear was attuned; at seventy I followed my heart’s desire without overstepping the line. ’† (Confucius – The Analects, Chapter II, verse 4). Confucius stressed on learning; learning prevents one from being narrow-minded. For Confucius, it is important for individuals to learn. He used learning to correct his mistakes and improve himself, and he in fact considered Junzi (a gentleman/lady) as a person eager to study. Confucius said, â€Å"The gentleman seeks neither a full belly nor a comfortable home. He is quick in Franklin Publishing Company www. franklinpublishing. net Conflict Resolution Negotiation (Volume 2011 Issue 4)124 action but cautious in speech. He goes to men possessed of the Way to be put right. Such a man can be described as eager to learn. † Overall then, the Confucians see it as bad to eat one’s fill all day long, and do nothing to nourish the mind. † (Low, 2010, 2008). On the other hand, Taoism stresses on unlearning (perhaps even undoing bureaucracy or procedures), and here it can be seen as being simple is both wise and good. Lao Tzu encouraged people to unlearn their learning for then they would not have any anxiety (Tao Te Ching, Verse 20). Simplicity is indeed embraced and it is wise not to overemphasize or complicate things (Low, 2009). To the Taoists, the Confucian’s pursuit of knowledge has divided people and things (creating distinctions and differences between men and animals/ other creatures) as well as having complicated life; they also argue that it can also cause contention for profits and fame. Life is indeed simple, and it is good not to over do things; when eating just eat and when sleeping, just sleep; and in living, just live. More so, one cannot learn with an occupied mind, one cannot fill a full cup unless it’s emptied; one should not overanalyze too. Lao Tzu speaks of â€Å"stop thinking and end your problems† (Verse 20, Tao de ching). Figure 2: shows a summary of key differences between Confucianism and Taoism Human Living and Spirituality Practicality And Esotericism Groupings, Categorization and Non-Categorization/ Dualities And Oneness Filial Piety And Nature Rites And Beyond Rites Or Rigidity Versus Flexibility Learning And Unlearning 4 Conclusion Both Confucianism and Taoism, having been home-grown in China and developed in almost total isolation from the rest of the world, have played a major role in the country’s three thousand Franklin Publishing Company www. franklinpublishing. net. Conflict Resolution Negotiation (Volume 2011 Issue 4)125 years of history. And perhaps the world and the people can learn, apply and adapt the finer points and wisdom of Confucianism and Taoism into their lives. And to paraphrase Yu Dan (2009: 187), wherever we are, we can let the spiritual power of Confucianism and/or Taoism combine with our present laws and rules, fusing seamlessly together to become an essential part of our lives, to let each of us build for ourselves a truly worthwhile life. This is surely the ultimate significance of Confucius and/or Taoism in our lives today. References Confucius (1915) (Contributors: Dawson, Miles Menander) The ethics of Confucius: The sayings of the Master and his disciples upon the conduct of â€Å"The Superior Man†. G. P. Putnam’s Sons: New York. Fung, Y. L. (1948) A short history of Chinese philosophy, The Free Press: New York. Lau, D. C. (1979) Confucius The Analects (Lun Yu), The Penguin Books: England. Li, Y. Y. (1996) Chinese traditional values and characteristics of Chinese health behavior. (in Chinese) Chinese psychology and therapy, Laureate Book Co. : Taipei. Low, K. C. P. (forthcoming) ‘Confucian ethics’ in Idowu, S. O. (ed. ), (2011) Encyclopedia of corporate social responsibility, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Low, K. C. P. (2010) ‘Values make a leader, the Confucian perspective’, Insights to a changing world journal, Volume 2010 Issue 2, p. 13 – 28. Low, K. C. P. (2010a) ‘Teaching and Education: the ways of Confucius’, Educational research, December 2010 Special issues, p. 681- 686. Franklin Publishing Company www. franklinpublishing. net Conflict Resolution Negotiation (Volume 2011 Issue 4)126 Low, K. C. P. (2010b) â€Å"Zen and leadership – Growing one’s leadership excellence†, Insights to a changing world, Volume 2010 Issue 1, p. 1 10. Low, K. C. P. (2009) ‘Lao Tzu’s three treasures, leadership organizational growth’, Leadership organizational management journal, Volume 2009, Issue 3, p 27 – 36. Low, K. C. P. (2008) ‘Value-based leadership: Leading, the Confucian way’, Leadership organizational management journal, Volume 2008 Issue 3, p. 32 – 41. Low, K. C. P. (2008a) ‘Leadership thoughts to ponder – Some classic sins of leadership’, Leadership organizational management journal, Volume 2008 Issue 4, p. 65 75. Low, K. C. P. (2008b) ‘Father leadership and small businesses in Singapore – Case revisited’, Leadership and organization management journal (LOM), Vol. 2008 Issue 3, p. 68 82. Low, K. C. P. (2008c) ‘Confucian ethics social responsibility – The golden rule responsibility to the stakeholders’, Ethics critical thinking journal, Volume 2008 Issue 4, p. 46 54. Low, K. C. P. and Ang, S. L. (2010), ‘Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)’, Chinese Medicine, Vol. 1 No. 3 (Dec 2010) p. 84 90, (Published Online http://www. SciRP. org/journal/cm). Low, K.

The performance of Tanzania in international trade

The performance of Tanzania in international trade There are six main theories that govern international trade namely; classical trade theory, factor proportion theory, product life cycle theory, foreign direct investment theories, international production theory and internationalization theory. 1.1 Classical trade theory Countries gain if each devotes resources to the production of goods and services Ricardo (1817) in which it has an advantage Smith (1776). 1.2 Factor proportion theory Countries will tend to specialize in the production of goods and services that Hecksher and Ohlin (1933) utilize their most abundant resources 1.3 Product life cycle theory The cycle follows that: a countrys export strength builds; foreign production Vernon (1971) starts; foreign production becomes competitive in export markets; and Wells (1968, 1969) import competition emerges in the countrys home market 1.4 Foreign direct investment theories Market imperfections theory firms decision to invest overseas is explained as a strategy to capitalize on Hymer (1970) certain capabilities not shared by competitors in foreign countries 1.5 International production theory The propensity of a firm to initiate foreign production will depend on the specific Dunning (1980) attractions of its home country compared with resource implications and Fayerweather (1982) advantages of locating in another country 1.6 Internalization theory Internalization concerns extending the direct operations of the firm and bringing Buckley (1982, 1988) under common ownership and control the activities conducted by intermediate Buckley and Casson markets that link the firm to customers. 2.0 THE IMPORTANCE OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE The importance of international trade to a nations economic welfare and development has been heavily documented in the economics literature since Adam Smiths (1776) inquiry into nature and causes of the wealth of nations. This suggests that economies need to export goods and services in order to generate revenue to finance imported goods and services which cannot be produced indigenously (Coutts and Godley, 1992). The main indicators of a nations economic strength can be gauged from its gross domestic product (GDP), as this measure is an estimate of the value of goods and services produced by an economy in a given period (Tayeb, 1992). The notion that international trade can influence GDP has been explored by several economic theorists (Marin, 1992; Meier, 1984) and culminated in the export-led growth thesis. As export sales increase, other things being equal, the GDP of a nation will rise and provide a stimulus to improved economic well-being and societal prosperity. The way in which this relationship can be interpreted suggests that export performance has a stimulating effect throughout a countrys economy in the form of technological spillovers and other related favourable externalities (Marin, 1992). Export activities may exert these influences because exposure to international markets demands improved efficiency, and supports product and process innovation activities, while increases in specialization encourage profitable exploitation of economies of scale (Temple, 1994). Thus, the export-led growth thesis predicts export growth will cause economy-wide productivity gains in the form of enhanced levels of GDP. Another mechanism through which exports are connected with sustainable rates of economic growth is the balance of payments. The balance of payments constraint can be expressed as follows. In general, economic growth creates a variety of demands which cannot be satisfied solely by domestic output. The faster the rate of domestic demand, the more accelerated the growth of imports (Abdel- Malek, 1969). However, any excess of imports from one country to another, over and above exports requires the trade deficit to be financed by either government borrowing from overseas or drawing on the economys stock of assets. If this situation is sustained, it becomes vital for the home government to address the issue of such a trade imbalance (de Jonquieres, 1994; Hornby, 1994). Classical trade theory dictates that the extent to which a country exports and imports has a direct relationship to the trading pattern of the country with other nations. That is, countries are able to gain if they devote a certain amount of their resources to the generation of goods and services in which they have an economic advantage (Ricardo, 1817). Therefore, classical trade theory argues that a country generates goods and services in which it has an advantage, for consumption indigenously, and subsequently exports the surplus. It is for countries to import goods and services in which they have an economic disadvantage. Economic advantages/ disadvantages may arise from country differences in factors such as resource endowments, labour, capital, technology or entrepreneurship. Classical trade theory contends that the basis for international trade can be sourced to differences in production characteristics and resource endowments which are founded on domestic differences in natural and acquired economic advantages. However, over and above such a general insight into international trade, classical trade theory is unable to offer any explanation as to what causes differences in relative advantages. The factor proportion theory, in contrast to classical trade theory, is able to provide an explanation for the differences in advantage exhibited by trading countries. According to this theory, countries will tend to generate and export goods and services that harness large amounts of abundant production factors that they possess, and import goods that require large amounts of production factors which are scarce (Heckscher and Ohlin, 1933). Both of these theories stated above have been shown to be deficient in explaining more recent patterns of international trade. For example, the 1960s witnessed significant technological progress and the rise of the multinational enterprise, which resulted in a call for new theories of international trade to reflect changing commercial realities (Leontief, 1966). At that time, the product life cycle theory of international trade was found to be a useful framework for explaining and predicting international trade patterns as well as multinational enterprise expansion. This theory suggested that a trade cycle emerges where a product is produced by a parent firm, then by its foreign subsidiaries and finally anywhere in the world where costs are at their lowest possible (Vernon, 1966). Furthermore, it explains how a product may emerge as a countrys export and work through the life cycle to ultimately become an import. The essence of the international product life cycle is that technological innovation and market expansion are critical issues in explaining patterns of international trade. That is, technology is a key factor in creating and developing new products. Market size and structure are influential in determining the extent and type of international trade. While these theories are insightful, a number of modern international trade theories have emerged recently which take account of other important considerations such as government involvement and regulation. However, these theories make assumptions which detract from their potential significance and contribution to international business. For instance, they assume that: factors of production are immobile between countries; perfect information for international trade opportunities exists; and, traditional importing and exporting are the only mechanisms for transferring goods and services across national boundaries (Bradley, 1991). The market imperfections theory states that firms constantly seek market opportunities and their decision to invest overseas is explained as a strategy to capitalize on certain capabilities not shared by competitors in foreign countries (Hymer, 1970). The capabilities or advantages of firms are explained by market imperfections for products and factors of production. That is, the theory of perfect competition dictates that firms produce homogeneous products and enjoy the same level of access to factors of production. However, the reality of imperfect competition, which is reflected in industrial organization theory (Porter, 1985), determines that firms gain different types of competitive advantages and each to varying degrees. Nonetheless, market imperfections theory does not explain why foreign production is considered the most desirable means of harnessing the firms advantage. Dunning (1980) and Fayerweather (1982) have addressed this issue and developed what can be described as international production theory. International production theory suggests that the propensity of a firm to initiate foreign production depend on the specific attractions of its home country compared with resource implications and advantages of locating in another country. This theory makes it explicit that not only do resource differentials and the advantages of the firm play a part in determining overseas investment activities, but foreign government actions may significantly influence the piecemeal attractiveness and entry conditions for firms. This was extensively investigated by Buckley (1982, 1988) and Buckley and Casson (1976, 1985). Internalization theory centers on the notion that firms aspire to develop their own internal markets whenever transactions can be made at lower cost within the firm. Thus, internalization involves a form of vertical integration bringing new operations and activities, formerly carried out by intermediate markets, under the ownership and governance of the firm. 3.0 PERFORMANCE OF TANZANIA IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE AFTER JOINING REGIONAL TRADE PROTOCOLS. 3.1 Factors hindering performance of Tanzania in International trade Tanzania has not benefited as much as would be possible from the generous concessions offered by regional trade protocols. There are several factors that can be attributed to Tanzanias poor performance in international trade one of them being domestic supply constraints. Another factor is poor capacity to negotiate in international trade meetings due to lack of awareness. The issue of awareness is significant because successful participation in international trade matters requires knowledge of global developments in trade issues. Awareness helps to improve effectiveness of trade policy for Tanzania. Also, high level of awareness provides a benchmark based on which the effectiveness of agreements and negotiations can be measured. It has been revealed that many officials who represent Tanzania in international trade negotiations are not aware of some important regional trade protocol issues and thus fail to take advantage of preferences and opportunities that can increase the performance of Tanzania in international trade. Lack of awareness on regional trade protocols leads to poor performance of Tanzania in international trade. The table below shows the extent of awareness on regional trade protocols. Level of awareness among stakeholders on regional trade protocols Type of regional trade protocol Percentage of awareness SADC 18.3% AGOA 14.3% WTO 2.0% COMESA 9.9% EAC 2.0% EU-ACP 7.9% Source: Economic and Social Research Foundation (ESRF, 2008). The data above shows that the level of awareness on regional trade protocols among stakeholders is highest at 18.3% for SADC and lowest for WTO and EAC at 2.0%. These findings show that the level of awareness on regional trade protocols among stakeholders in Tanzania is very low and this hinders the performance of Tanzania in international trade and FDI. In most cases, the preparations for negotiations are poorly made, including poor consultation and coordination. Negotiators go in the negotiation table with a pre-determined position, a tendency that limits their flexibility to maximize gains from such negotiations. Another problem relates to insufficient analytical work before attending the negotiations. Another reason for poor performance of Tanzania in international trade negotiations is that the coordination of international trade is not centralized. For instance, negotiations and agreements for EAC are handled by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation while those of SADC are handled by under the Ministry of Industry and Trade that is also responsible for all multilateral trade issues. Another reason for poor performance of Tanzania in international trade is that the private sector in Tanzania has limited participation in international trade negotiations. Also, the private sector in Tanzania is not involved in formulation of international trade policies , hence limiting their experience and level of awareness on international trade issues compared to other countries which involve their private sectors. For instance, Tanzania Chamber of Commerce and Agriculture (TCCIA), Chamber of Industry and Trade (CTI) and Tanzania Private Sector Foundation (TPSF) are not involved in international trade negotiations, thus limiting the performance of Tanzania in international trade. Due to poor preparation with regard to international trade, Tanzania fails to benefit from international trade agreements. The poor participation of the private sector in Tanzania in regional trade protocols is mainly caused by lack of financial and human resources. To deal with the issue of lack of financial resources among the private sector, the government sometimes includes delegates from the private sector in trade missions especially when the delegations involve high-level government officials. Recently, the government has started to involve the private sector in regional trade negotiations. For instance, the private sector was involved in the EAC negotiations from the very beginning. Also, although CTI was partially involved in the EAC policy formulation, their participation was limited due to lack of awareness and willingness on part of the government. 3.2 Performance of Tanzania in FDI after joining regional trade protocols Among the objectives of Tanzania in joining regional trade protocols is facilitating Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Along with expansion of market opportunities, regional trade protocols encourage FDI because investors are attracted to larger market and may thus anticipate enjoying larger economy of scale. Investors take advantage of wider market and expect their investments to expand. The East African Community for example has put in place a shared investment policy among member states with harmonized investment incentives for investors. The performance of Tanzania with regard to FDI has been much effective especially during the 1990S when the country underwent privatization after Structural Adjustment Programs. The table below shows the performance of FDI after regional trade protocols; FDI inflows to Tanzania from various regional trade protocols in US$ Millions 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 EAC 54.1 22.9 6.9 12.5 94.4 3.3 SADC 122.1 70.5 139.3 181 513 17.6 AGOA 325 151.4 31.6 52.1 560 19.3 EU-ACP 677 86.7 95.8 183 106 36.7 Source: Tanzania Investment Centre (TIC, 2008) The findings above show that Tanzania has attracted FDI mostly through EU-ACP countries followed by FDI from AGOA and SADC. Thus, it can be generalized that EE-ACP and AGOA have been the main source of FDI to Tanzania compared to other regional trade protocols that Tanzania has joined namely; EAC and SADC. This can be explained due to the fact that the African countries have low capital formation. 3.3 Performance of Tanzania under AGOA Regime The performance of Tanzania in AGOA is poor compared to the performance of other countries. For instance, during the first year of AGOA, Tanzania exported goods worth $ 899,000, mostly agricultural and forestry, handicrafts, horticulture and fish products. On the other hand, Kenya exported goods worth $57.1 million mostly textiles and apparel. The main reason for this poor performance is because Tanzania delayed to register for AGOA. On the issue of investments from USA which is also part of the AGOA trade protocol, Tanzania has failed to register meaningful investments from the United States due to several factors such as; corruption, poor infrastructures, high electricity cost and bureaucracy. Another reason is complicated laws regarding land ownership surrounding investment projects. The table below shows the performance of Tanzania under AGOA compared to other countries that participate in AGOA namely; Uganda, Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa and Lesotho. The data shows that, besides Uganda, Tanzania has had the worst performance in AGOA. This shows that regional trade protocols have had little impact on participation of Tanzania in international trade. Trade under AGOA for selected countries 000 US$ (2000-2008) Country Total exports to US AGOA export Tanzania 16594 716 Uganda 7282 22 Kenya 120,421 74963 Nigeria 3636192 3366165 South Africa 2646359 831805 Lesotho 208756 206349 Total 8927183 5723216 Source: BOT (2008). 3.4 Market Access and Technical Assistance Tanzanias participation in the WTO issues is through the Least Developed Countries (LDC) group. The countries forming the LDCs group are eligible to receive the special treatment under the WTO rules so as to enhance market access. However, Tanzanias participation in WTO has had little impact on the volume of their trade due to low export volume. On the other hand, Tanzania has benefited from technical assistance through various initiatives such as; Joint Integrated Technical Assistance Program (JITAP), which involves UNCTAD, WTO and ITC. The objectives of such assistance were to improve the performance and capacity stakeholders to understand regional trade protocols. Special and differential treatment has been useful for poor countries such as Tanzania. 3.5 Performance of Tanzania in international trade after joining regional trade protocols. The tables below show the performance of Tanzania in international trade after four regional trade protocols namely EU-ACP, SADC, EAC and AGOA. The findings are shown in terms of exports made by Tanzania to other countries and imports made by Tanzania as shown below; Tanzania exports to different countries in US$ Millions 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 EU-ACP 226 241 214 362 432 474 SADC 22.3 15.1 13.8 18.4 21 51.3 EAC 22.4 32.8 28.7 40.7 43.6 40.8 USA 21.4 12.8 18 15.2 15.1 13.5 Source: Bank of Tanzania (BOT, 2008). The findings above show that exports from Tanzania to other countries have been mainly to EU-ACP countries followed by exports to EAC countries, SADC countries and to a little extent to the United States of America. This shows that regional trade protocols have had little impact on international trade in Tanzania because exports to EU countries have been there even before Tanzania joined regional trade protocols. Tanzania imports from different countries in US$ Millions 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 EU-ACP 367.1 514 413 344 389 391 SADC 139 179 196 194 221 211 EAC 87.8 108 101 98.9 107 97.8 USA 52.6 81.3 99.2 58.9 65 91 Source: Bank of Tanzania (BOT, 2008). The findings shown in the table above show that imports from Tanzania to other countries have been mostly to EU-ACP countries; followed by those from SADC countries, EAC countries and the United States. These findings again show that regional trade protocols have had little impact on international trade because imports from EU countries were there even before Tanzania joined regional trade protocols. 4.0 THE STATUS OF TANZANIAS IMPLEMENTATION OF REGIONAL TRADE PROTOCOLS Below is a description of the status for Tanzania in the following key issues regarding regional trade protocols. 4.1 Conformity to the WTO rules: Tanzania needs good and timely information about WTO decisions (and their interpretation) and a capacity to influence the new agenda of the WTO at an early stage. The WTO is member-driven and reacts only to member initiatives. 4.2 Import liberalization issues: This is a requirement that the country should comply with the WTO agreement on removal of trade barriers by cutting down tariffs and other non-tariff barriers. Tanzania has already complied with most of the Uruguay Round (UR) requirement on its imports licensing and tariff regimes. The remaining challenge is to transform such reforms into institutions by drafting legislation to support them. 4.3 Agriculture trade: Tanzania is in compliance with the negotiations and agreements on agriculture (subsidies and market access). However, the country needs to closely monitor the forthcoming negotiations on agriculture as the requirements could be tightened. 4.4 Treatment of Non-Tariff Barriers: Since Non Tariff Barriers (NTB) are varied by country own economic measures to control trade, an important issue is whether the NTBs contradict WTO rules. Another one is the extent through which NTB are source of trade disputes between countries. 4.5 Subsidies: As with NTBs, United Republic of Tanzania needs to re-examine all Government measures to see if they are in conflict with the new provisions on subsidies. 4.6 Anti-dumping rules, countervailing actions and safeguards: For formal compliance with the WTO, United Republic of Tanzania must see that the national and regional (EAC and SADC) rules and procedures on anti-dumping, countervailing, and safeguards are reformed to fit the WTO rules, and this appears to be underway. 4.7 Customs valuation and other custom rules: United Republic of Tanzania is fast thriving to complete its customs valuation reforms that should make it conformable to the WTO rule on customs valuation. According to the interview with the officials in the MIT, it is hoped that this exercise will be complete by July 2004. This also includes measures to remove the Pre-shipment inspection procedure to enhance efficiency in custom administration. 4.8 Trade Related Investment Measures (TRIMS): Under GATT 1947, investment law had not been central to its rules, and countries have been able to ignore the rules. Tanzania needs at least to be aware of the rules and its vulnerabilities if it does not adapt to them, given the wide variety of types of investment regime that are used by different countries. 4.9 Standards: International standards are becoming more common, and for countries, which have not yet set their own, adopting these at an early stage may be a particularly efficient step. An alternative for United Republic of Tanzania in a region like the EAC or SADC is to shift to regional standards. However; while this may be cost saving, it still leaves the future costs of adapting such standards when an international standard is eventually set. Notifications of regional standards have been made for the EAC. These need to be made by Tanzania because EAC is not yet a recognized region in the WTO. 4.10 Services: As there were effectively no minimum requirements for services offers in the Uruguay Round, Tanzania formally complied. But there will be much more pressure in the next round to make substantive offers. The WTO has made provision for technical assistance to be availed to the LDCs regarding services liberalization, but for Tanzania has not yet been a clear indication of the type of assistance to be requested. Yet, in future requirements for more offers for service trade liberalization, Tanzania, among other countries, may not have a benchmark upon which to make offers. Even where the WTO may offer one, it may not necessarily be suitable for Tanzania as least developed country. 4.11 Trade Related Intellectual Property (TRIPS): Tanzania must comply with the TRIPS rules within the 2003-2010 period. Tanzania has legal systems that are likely to be adaptable to the standard forms and so the costs of adoption to the TRIPS will not be substantial. 4.12 Government Procurement: There is no obligation to join agreement on Government Procurement, and a few developing countries have. Whether Tanzania should join depends on whether it wants to export to government purchasers who have joined the agreement, and whether it wants to give preference to any local suppliers who would be in competition with potential foreign suppliers. If a substantial proportion of a countrys government expenditure is financed by aid, there may be other constraints on its purchasing. 4.13 Labour and the Environment: There is no need for immediate action on labour or environmental issues to meet international standards (except for the existing environmental protocols and obligations under ILO Conventions). But there will be opportunities for Tanzania to use environmental arguments in trade negotiations, especially when such arguments are useful for some products. 5.0 MEASURES TAKEN TO IMPROVE INTERNATIONAL TRADE Several measures have been taken to improve the performance of Tanzania in international trade with regard to regional trade protocols. Such measures include seeking assistance from donors to facilitate international trade. Donors support regional integration programs and activities under COMESA and SADC and this has benefited members States including Tanzania. Among such donors include; United States Agency for International Development (USAID), GTZ, UNCTAD, UNDP and UNIDO. Also, the European Union is funding a number of projects aimed at improving international trade. Within EAC, projects aimed at improving international trade include; cooperation with UNCTAD, of ASYCUDA (automated system for customs data) and Euro trace. The European Union also supports international trade by offering EAC latest computer hardware, setting up internet networks and offering expert advice in preparing the region for Common External Tariff. EU also provides EAC staff with training regarding WTO matters for member. Support has also been offered to assist in developing the finance and Investment Protocol of EAC. On the other hand, USAID has also assisted SADC in the ratification and implementation process for the SADC trade Protocol. UNCTAD has provided technical assistance for the Trade Negotiation Forum process devoted to the preparation of the SADC trade liberalization program leading to the formation of the desired free trade area. Assistance has also been given to SADC by the Commonwealth Secretariat in such areas as development of a regional industrial policy. 6.0 CONCLUSION This study has analysed characteristics and status of Tanzanias participation in regional trade protocols and its impact on international trade. It also explains the rationale for Tanzania to join regional trade protocols, level of participation and performance in international trade. The study also highlighted issues affecting the performance of Tanzania in international trade. The study found that although Tanzania participates in many regional trade protocols, they have had little impact on Tanzanias participation in international trade. For example, majority of regional trade protocols in which Tanzania is involved had little participation of key actors because of poor participation of the private sector. Another factor is lack of proper trade policy. Other factors that affect the impact of regional trade protocols on the performance of Tanzania in international trade include; poor administration of trade negotiations and agreements, lack of a centralized mechanism to monitor, follow-up nor appraise the performance of Tanzania in regional trade protocols, and multiple handling of international trade issues by different departments/ministries which make it difficult. Another factor that hinder effective participation of Tanzania in regional trade protocols and hence, poor performance in international trade is lack of capacity and awareness of negotiation skills among representatives of Tanzania is regional trade protocols. Due to poor negotiation skills, Tanzania has failed to take advantage of opportunities that arise from international trade. Despite the fact that Tanzania is interested in regional trade protocols, pursuances of such interests are not linked to the objective of widening market access. Often, negotiators adopt a pre-emptive approach to negotiation making the whole strategy less flexible. In addition, the interests of Tanzania are actively negotiated but not actively realized on the ground during negotiations. From the findings above, this study concludes that participation and performance of Tanzania is regional trade protocols has been poor due to various hindrances especially due to poor export capacity and lack of market access due to quality issues Hence, most of the regional trade protocols in which Tanzania has participated have had little or little impact on international trade. 7.0 RECOMMENDATIONS From the findings of the study, the following are recommendations made;  ·Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Tanzanian government should centralize issues related to regional trade protocols so as to enhance the positive impact of the trade protocols on international trade.  ·Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  The government should promote public debate and discussion in the area of international trade protocols.  ·Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  The government should intervene by offering training on negotiation skills so as to improve the performance of Tanzania in international trade.  ·Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  The government in collaboration with stakeholders should take measures to increase production so as to increase the volume of exports and hence, more participation in international trade.  ·Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Regional trade protocols have high impact on attracting FDI, thus, the government should follow up on regional trade protocols for investment opportunities.